Weather Revision

Weather Revision
-Weather elements: These are things you might be told to expect on a weather report
e.g. Rain, hail, sun, cloud, wind, snow, fog, mist, haze, gale, frost

Sun and Seasons

-All weather results from the troposphere, layer from 0-16km altitude
-Source of energy, wind blowing and temperatures, is the sun
-Solar energy is not evenly distributed
-Material, colour and elevation also affect energy storage and release, changing weather and climate



-Equinox is equal number of day and night hours (spring and autumn)
-Solstice is when there are the longest or shortest daylight hours (summer and winter)
-Latitude at equator is at 0 degrees
-Latitude at poles is 90 degrees
-Higher latitude = less solar energy

Air masses
-An air mass is a body of air with similar temperature and moisture levels, which influence the weather of areas it travels through
-Continental air masses have travelled over land
-Maritime air masses have travelled over oceans
-Warm air can hold more moisture than cold air
Tropical: Hot, originating in or near the tropics
Polar: Cold, Origination from or near the poles
Maritime: Moist, origination over an ocean
Continental: Dry, originating over land
Equatorial: Influences northern Aus in summer
Tropical Maritime: Warm and moist, Very warm and moist, influences Pacific/Indian ocean coasts summer thunderstorms to SA and Vic, and heavy rain along east coast
Tropical continental: Hot and dry, hot, dusty conditions in southern Aus
Southern Maritime: Cool and moist, common in southern Aus all year
Polar maritime: Cold and moist, coldest winter weather and >800m snow in SE Aus occasionally
-Southern Maritime has the greatest influence on Vic




Air Pressure
-The force exerted by the weight of air particles
-Rising and falling air pressure generates wind, cloud, cold, wet, fine, and sunny conditions
-Climate is about long term record, trends and averages; weather is the day to day experience
-Regions of sinking air = highs, high pressure regions, anticyclones
-Regions of rising air = lows, low pressure regions, depressions, cyclones
-Isobar = line used on weather maps which pass through areas with the same air pressure
-Air pressure measured in hectopascals (hPa)
High pressure:
-value of isobars increase toward centre
-air expands
-air is sinking
-air becomes warm and stable
-air spirals outwards
-in a anticlockwise direction
-cover a greater area
-move more slowly
-causes dry, cloud-free weather
Low pressure:
-value of isobars decrease toward centre
-air contracts
-air is rising
-air spirals inwards
-air cools to form clouds
-in a clockwise direction
-cover less area
-mover more quickly
-causes rain showers and cloudy weather
-Cold fronts represent line where col polar air meets warm tropical air
-Temperature difference creates strong winds (air moving to spread/even out)
-Cold air pushes warm air up
-Rising warm air can produce clouds
-71% of the Earth’s surface is water

Clouds
-a cloud is a swirling mass of water vapour
Type Level Appearance Precipitation
Cirrus High high level, white tufts or filaments; made up of ice crystals. No precipitation
Cirrocumulus High small rippled elements; ice crystals No precipitation
Cirrostratus High transparent sheet or veil, halo phenomena; ice crystals No precipitation
Altocumulus Middle layered cloud, rippled elements, generally white with some shading. May produce light showers
Altostratus Middle grey sheet, thinner layer allows sun to appear as through ground glass. Rain or snow
Nimbostratus Low thicker, darker and lower based sheet. Heavier intensity rain or snow
Stratocumulus Low layered cloud, series of rounded rolls, generally white. Drizzle
Stratus Low mass, grey, uniform base; if ragged, referred to as "fractostratus". Drizzle
Cumulus Low individual cells, vertical rolls or towers, flat base. Showers of rain or snow
Cumulonimbus Low-High very large cauliflower-shaped towers to 16 km high, often "anvil tops". Phenomena: thunderstorms, lightning, squalls. Showers of rain or snow
-Cirrus = curl of hair = wispy, high altitude
-Alto = middle = mid-altitude
-Nimbus = rain = raincloud
-Stratus = layer = sheet-like
-Cumulus = heap = puffy clouds
-Cumulonimbus = thunderclouds (summer storms etc)
Weather maps/Synoptic charts
-Summarises the state of the atmosphere at a particular period of time
-Air pressure measured at selected locations
-Isobars are drawn at 2 hectopascal intervals
-Isobars connect places with equal air pressure
e.g. ------- 126 --------
-When looking for pressure of an area, look for nearby pressure systems which enclose the area
-cool air descends to create high pressure, and cannot rise due to pressure of descending air from above, nor descend any further. So, it flows along the earth’s surface as wind and travels toward a low pressure system to replace heated rising air
-Rotation of earth drags wind of a straight line course
-Closer the isobars, stronger the wind
-Winds named after direction from which they blow, i.e. southerly wind head north
-Wind direction shown by symbol
-Barbs on tail of symbol indicate speed
-areas with rain in the last 24hrs are shaded in parallel diagonal lines
-lows and fronts associated with rising, cooling air
-produces showers or rain
-highs associated with sinking, warming air which retains moisture
-skies generally clearer, fine weather
-winds blowing off the sea often bring rain
-winds blowing from central Aus usually bring dry conditions
Determining temperatures
-After a cold front passes, temperature falls
-Southerly winds bring colder weather
-Winds from the north bring warmer weather
-Graph may be used

Glossary
Weather: The atmospheric condition for a brief period of time; the day to day experience
Climate: The atmospheric condition for a long period of time, approximately 30 years. It is a synthesis of all weather over time and is based on records, trends and averages
Air pressure: The force exerted by tiny air particles, the rises and falls of which generate weather conditions
High pressure: regions of sinking air which spirals outwards in an anticlockwise direction. High pressure is associated with dry, cloud-free weather
Low pressure: Region of rising air which spirals inwards in a clockwise direction. Low pressure is associated with rain and showers
Isobars: The lines on a weather map which pass through areas of equal pressure
Cold front: represents the line where cold polar air moving toward the equator meets warm tropical air moving pole ward
Relief (Orographic) rainfall:
1. Warm moist air cools as it is forced to rise by mountains and hills
2. Cool air condensed to form clouds
3. Precipitation falls
4. Drier air warms up as it descends the mountain/hill, producing less rain, known as a rain shadow

Convectional rainfall:
1. Air is warmed by the sun
2. Warm air expands as it rises
3. Cooler air condenses, forms clouds
4. Heavy rain is produced and falls

Frontal rainfall:
1. Cool, denser air of a low pressure system moves across earth’s surface
2. Warm, lighter air is forced to rise as the cold front moves in
3. Air is cooled, condenses, and can cause rain to fall

Invertebrate Revision

Invertebrates Revision
Invertebrate: Animal without a backbone

Phylum
Annelids (little rings)
-most in water, some in soil
-segmented worms
-soft-bodies
-take in air through moist skin
e.g. leech, earthworm, fanworm, ragworm

Arthropods (jointed foot)
-found in land and water
-segmented bodies
-exoskeleton
-paired and jointed legs
-most have antennae and compound eyes
-on land, breathing through spiracles (tubes)
-in water, breathing through gills
e.g. ants, crayfish, scorpion, spiders, crabs, flies, butterflies, millipedes, damselflies

Cnidarians (stinging cells)
-most live in the sea, several in fresh water
-soft, hollow bodies
-only one body opening
-tentacles with stinging cells
-no body organs such as heart and lungs
e.g coral, sea anemone, hydra, bluebottle, jellyfish

Echinoderms (spiny skin)
-found only in the sea
-spiny skin
-arms that radiate from centre of body, based on five parts
-tube feet for movement
-mouth and anus
e.g. brittle-star, sea urchin, starfish, sea cucumber

Platyhelminthes (flat worms)
-flat body
-unsegmented
-head-like region
-mouth opening but no anus
e.g. tapeworm, fluke, planarian, flatworm

Poriferans (bearing/with pores)
-found in water
-sponge body with many holes
-food and water enter through tiny holes in body
-waste goes through single large opening
-usually fixed in one place to rocks/shells
-skeleton of glassy/chalky needles or spongy fibres
e.g. bath sponges, glass sponges (all sponges)

Molluscs (soft body)
-Soft, unsegmented bodies
-usually covered with a protective shell
-head with eyes and/or tentacles
-mouth and anus
-muscular foot for movement
e.g. snail, slug, octopus, limpet, clam, squid, oyster

Nematodes (thread form)
-round worms
-found in water, soil, plants and animals
-worm-like body with no segments
-mouth and anus
e.g. threadworm, pinworm, hookworm, whipworm, lungworm

Arthropods
-There are more arthropods than any other animal types on earth
-All have external skeletons
-All have jointed body
-All have paired and jointed legs
-5 Arthropod groups:
1. Crustaceans – at least 10 legs, more than 3 body segments, 2 pair of antennae
(Crabs, shrimps, lobsters, prawns)
2. Arachnids – 8 legs, 2 body segments, 1 pair of antennae (very small)
(spiders, scorpions, ticks, mites)
3. Insects – 6 legs, 3 body segments, 1pair antennae
(butterflies, damselflies, bees, beetles, crickets, ladybirds)
4. Millipedes (diplopods) – 2 pairs of legs per segment, many segments, 1 pair antennae
5. Centipedes (chilopods) – 1 pair legs per segment, many segments, 1 pair antennae
Note: Together, millipedes and centipedes are myriapods
-There are 3 ways to classify arthropods
1. Number of legs
2. Number of antennae
3. Number of body segments

Insects
Insect Body Structure:
-Divided into 3 parts – head, thorax, abdomen
-Head = antennae, eyes, mouthparts
-Antennae, contain organs for smell and touch:
-Long and thin for touch (distance between predator/prey)
-Feathery antennae for sensitivity help pick up scents (e.g. of females)
-Have compound eyes:
-good for seeing movement, escape from predators
-housefly processes 100 images per second to help flying
-Mouths shaped depending on food and eating method
-Sap-sucking = tiny head, pointed tube
-proboscis is a long tubular structure, unrolls to reach nectar (hawk moth, butterfly)
-Sharp proboscis= piercing/sucking blood (female mosquitoes, bedbugs – barbed structure for piercing and sawing, feed before dawn >13 degrees, may take 5mins or more to extract blood meal)
-Also inject saliva containing substance that stops blood clotting
-Proboscis can be blown up (butterfly) or uncoiled using muscles (hawk moth)
-Proboscis is kept coiled at rest, and uncoiled for feeding
-Plant/wood-eating = large head, strong muscles/jaws to bite through plant tissue (grasshoppers and cockroaches have hard, sharp, chewing jaws
-Houseflies and bees lick up their food
-For all insects, mouth connects to digestive system
-Thorax = where legs and wings attach
-These are hollow with exoskeleton like main body
-All have 6 Legs
-Often spurs with sharp claws
-Strong limbs for grasping/holding prey
-Strong hind leg for jumping (grasshoppers)
- Wings important for classification:
-may be one or two pairs (2 or 4)
-may be covered with hairs, scales, have long silky fringes
-In beetle, front pair is hard and thick to protect flying wings when not in use (allows digging)
-Long narrow wings with fringes for fast, accurate flight
-Front and back pairs of wings joined by hooks to beat in unison
-Abdomen = number of segments
-At the end are reproductive organs:
-female = often includes long ovipositor (long thin tube for placing eggs)
-e.g. female wasps lay eggs in paralysed spiders/caterpillars, damselflies within plants
-Sting also located near end of abdomen
-exoskeleton of insects made of substance called chitin
-Tough, waterproof, springy
-Insects have no lungs
-Use trachea, fine tubes, between segments of exoskeleton to transport oxygen around body
-hearing organ location depend on insect, mosquito= base of antennae, cricket=front legs, butterfly=on thorax, cicada=abdomen



Insect Life-cycles

-In all insects: males produce sperm and transfer to female when mating, eggs fertilized, eggs laid near food supply
-Three options after this
1. No change or no metamorphosis
-When born, it already looks like adult, only smaller
-moults exoskeleton several times to allow room for growth
-e.g. silverfish
2. Part change or incomplete metamorphosis
-Young look like adults, but with no wings, different colour and shape
-they moult, grow, and gradually develop these
- stages are egg --> nymph --> adult
e.g. green vegetable bug, dragonfly, damselfly, grasshoppers, termites
3. Complete change or complete metamorphosis
-Four growth stages in their life cycle, e.g. the butterfly, flies, beetles, wasps, bees, ants
-female butterfly lays eggs on leaf (milkweed or swan plant)
-eggs hatch into tiny larva or caterpillar, monarch butterfly caterpillars are green and white
striped. Grow to 3cm long over a few weeks
-the caterpillar hangs by its ‘tail’ from a twig, and changes to pupa form (takes a few hours)
Case of monarch butterfly pupa is glossy green with gold spots.
-most of caterpillar body dissolves, reforms to butterfly
-internal and external differences
-case splits down the side, and the adult emerges
-stages are egg --> larva(caterpillar) --> pupa --> adult

Dichotomous Keys

-Have 2 options at each level
-When making one, the options are never the name of any category/animal
-when reading them, note down each option that lies on the path to a category/animal



Food webs and chains

-Show 2 main things: Feeding relationships and flow of energy
-Carnivore: Animal that eats other animals only
-Herbivore: Animal that eats plants only (primary consumer)
-Omnivore: Animal that eats plants and animals
-food --> consumer
-sun is the source of energy, start of all food chains
-plant = producer
-consumers come after the plants
-first order/primary consumer
-second order/secondary consumer (usually carnivore)
-third order/ tertiary consumer (usually carnivore)
-top order consumer (not eaten by any other animal on the chain)
-in food webs, plants go on the bottom and the consumers generally go in order upward, with the top order animals on top
- When considering the effects of changes, think about
-increase/decrease in predators
-increase/decrease in prey
-maintaining/disrupting balance of food
-main food sources
-increase/decrease in producers
-Remember that food chains often do not develop past three consumer levels, as energy is lost at each level. There would have to be huge amounts of lower consumers/producers to sustain a higher order consumer.

Carbon – CO2

-Plants take in carbon from atmosphere through leaves
-Carbon returned to atmosphere through respiration, decomposition, combustion
-Respiration takes place in every cell of the body
-Animals obtain carbon by consuming plants
-Burning of fossil fuels disrupt natural balance of carbon
-Skeletal remains of aquatic creatures, such as shells and bones, is the source of carbon in limestone
-limestone=calcium carbonate=CaCO3

ihearthorses

(tell me if there's anything else on the test that I have missed!)

Hi everyone!
Test time again, but we need to take this opportunity, AND GET PIZZA (OR PASTA)
So this is revision for our music test:

Notes of the Treble and Bass clefs:





Or rather this is the grand staff



Intervals:
-Remember to count where the note already is
-Minor thirds will sound sad
-Major thirds should sound happy
-Major thirds are the first two notes of the major arpeggio



Key Signatures:
C major – no sharps or flats
A minor – no sharps or flats, raise 7th note
G major – 1 sharp, F sharp
E minor – 1 sharp, F sharp, raise 7th note
F major – 1 flat, B flat
D minor – 1 flat, B flat, raise 7th note
Remember to raise the 7th note of minor scales!

It is likely that the test will ask us to write scales, remember to consider the:
-Clef (Treble or Bass)
-Type of note (whole half, crotchet, minum etc)
-Key signature or accidentals
-Whether the stem of the note goes up or down (down until c1)

Italian Terms:

Tempo/Speed from slowest to fastest:
Lento: very slow
Adagio: slow
Adante: at a walking pace
Moderato: moderate, interpreted by performer
Allegro: fast and lively
Presto: very fast

Dynamics from softest to loudest:
Pianissimo: very softly - pp
Piano: softly - p
Mezzo Piano: moderately softly - mp
Forte: loudly - f
Mezzo Forte: moderately loudly - mf
Fortissimo: very loud - ff
Crescendo: gradually getting louder (<)
Decrescendo/Diminuendo: gradually get softer (>)

Technique:
Staccato: short and detatched
Legato - smoothly and connected
Slur/phrase mark - without breaking it apart, connected

Instruments: be able to recognise a
Flute - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LI3wIHFQkAk (clear, high range, airy sound)
Oboe - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iSsFUQs89T0 (shrill, high range, sharp sound)
Bassoon - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sdrTKYDgISQ (hear vibrations, lowest range)
Clarinet - http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9CkK-LM6Oe0 (warm, mid-high range)
The song played is Fight of the Bumblebee, coolest yet hardest song ever.
And flute is the best by the way (bias? maybe...)

If there's anything else you think we might have, please comment

from ihearthorses

GEOLOGY REVISION

GEOLOGY REVISION

Igneous: Meaning “from fire”, they are created when lava or magma cools at different rates. They contain crystal such as clear quartz, black mica and white/pink feldspar. Can be plutonic/intrusive where magma cools slowly underground, or volcanic/extrusive where they cool quickly above, often after an eruption.
-Used for decorative walls, floors, or desktops
-Eg. Pumice, Granite, Basalt, Obsidian, Gabbro

Sedimentary: Literally resembling, containing, or forming by a collection of sediments.
-3 main characteristics: No crystals, layers, grains
-Identified by layering, size and type of sediments.
-They all form underwater.
Sediments= Deposited piece of weathered rock or plant/animal remains
-Layers caused when grains/pebbles of different sizes settle at different times.
-Used for statues, paving, buildings and statues, but not as common due to acid rain wear. Polished limestone is too slippery for paving.
-Type of rock formed depends of place of formation and type of material
-Coal creates in forest floor where bottom layers are dried and temperature rises leaving coal
-Conglomerate formed in fast flowing river
-Mudstone formed in a still lake
-Limestone and coal aka biological rocks
-Eg. Breccia, Sandstone, Limestone, Shale, Mudstone, Siltstone, Gypsum, Coal, Conglomerate

Metamorphic: Meta meaning change and morphe meaning form.
Parent Rock Metamorphic Rock Main Cause of Metamorphism
Shale Slate Pressure
Limestone Marble Heat
Granite Gneiss Pressure
Sandstone Quartzite Heat
Conglomerate Metaconglomerate Heat
-Can be made of any other rock type
-Buried deep underground, change caused by heat from volcano and pressure from crust
-Used for statues, tables, roofs, slates, tiles, roads
-May be platy or flaky, distinct colour banding where minerals are squeezed into layers, distinct folding due to pressure
-Eg. Quartzite, marble, slate, schist, gneiss, Phyllite, Metaconglomerate

Weathering, Erosion:
-Sea action, wind, blasting of sand and soil, acid rain, and chemical reactions between water and ground
-Expansion of freezing water causes widening cracks which eventually break the rock
-Weathering: Where rocks are broken down into smaller pieces
-Erosion: Transportation of weathered rock
-Deposition: The weathered rock is laid down or deposited. Eg. From slowing wind or water

Rock Cycle Summary: Magma, crystallization, igneous, to weathering, erosion, deposition, to sediment, compaction and cementation, sedimentary, heat and pressure, metamorphic, melting, magma.

Layers of the earth: Crust, mantle, outer core, inner core.

Minerals: (rocks are made of minerals)
-Identified by characteristics including colour, lustre, transparency crystal system, crystal habits, cleavage, fracture, hardness, specific gravity, streak, other characteristics, associated minerals, notable occurrences, best field indicators.
-Rocks are composed of different minerals
-Most minerals contain crystals

Crystals: refer to previous revision

CuSO4 Crystals, Yum

Crystal Revision

These are COPPER SULPHATE CRYSTALS (CuSO4)

Method:

Part 1:

1. Weigh 7g of copper sulphate powder into a 250ml beaker using an electric balance
2. Collect 100ml of copper sulphate into a second beaker
3. Add 7g of copper sulphate to the solution and stir (to make solution saturated)
4. Heat beaker and stir to dissolve the solid powder (solution now supersaturated)
5. Pour the warm solution into the clean petri dish until 2/3 full and leave overnight (time is required in order for the solution to cool and solidify into crystals. The solution is now less but still supersaturated)
6. Cover the rest of a solution with a cardboard lid

Part 2:

7. Choose 2 seed crystals and place them on clean paper. (Shape/figure is more important than size as it is the template for the final crystal) Measure and draw one crystal. DO NOT TOUCH THE CRYSTAL (copper sulphate is poisonous and thus potentially harmful)
8. Tie a slip knot around the other seed crystal with cotton thread
9. Suspend the thread through the cardboard lid
10. Tip the remaining crystals back into the solution. You may need to scrape the crystals with a spatula (Crystals may have solidified onto the bottom of the dish)
11. Heat the solution until ALL of the solid has dissolved (This is increasing the saturation of the solution again)
12. COOL the solution in a shallow, cold water bath (otherwise the suspended seed crystal will melt)
13. Hang the crystal in the cool solution and leave to grow

Explanation:

As the supersaturated solution cools, the excess copper sulphate will solidify onto the seed crystal. Shape is maintained though the size will increase. Particles basically join evenly to the template as opposed to falling to the bottom of the beaker.
-Crystals grow by adding single layers of molecules at a time
-As the water cools and evaporates, the solid is forced out make these layers
-Crystal shape depends on the arrangement of atoms

Definitions:

Solution: Mixture of substance dissolved into another, solvent + solute = solution

Solvent: Does the dissolving (usually liquid, H2O)

Solute: Is dissolved (CuSO4 powder)

Unsaturated solution: Where the solution can hold more than what is dissolved into it

Saturated solution: Where the solution is holding exactly what it can. Adding excess will result in solid falling to the bottom, but solution itself remains saturated.

Supersaturated solution: Where excess solute is dissolved into the solution. It requires heat. When cooled, particles will be forced out of liquid and re-solidify.

Geog Revision

Plate Tectonics Revision

Wegener’s continental drift theory stages:
200 million years ago - Supercontinent Pangaea, Australia touching Antarctica and Indian Asia
180 million years ago - Split into Laurasia up north and Gondwanaland south
135 million years ago - Continents began to break up, Australia attached to Antarctica
65 million years ago - Further breaking up, Australia moved north-east into isolation
Today - Current positions
50 million years later – Australia to move further north
Types of plates:

Continental Plates:
 Carry land masses, continents, above
 Some also hold oceans, but they are named after the land. Eg. North American Plate
 Made of lighter, less dense rock. Eg. Quartz and feldspar
 Normally do not subduct
Oceanic Plates:
 Carry oceans above
 May carry small land masses, islands, but named after the ocean. Eg. Pacific Plate
 Made of heavier, denser rock. Eg. Mainly basalt, (granite?)
 Tend to subduct in a collision

Important information:
-Rocks deep underground can be studied through rocks from volcanoes and by looking at seismographs or seismic waves (shifting rocks create energy)
-Deep underground, the high pressure keeps rocks solid by compacting and compacting particles (liquid takes up more space than solid)
-Middle of earth probably made of iron, as rock alone would not be able to make up the weight (measured using Cavendish balance) and magnetism of the earth which make compasses work is based on this iron core. The field of magnetism from N to S poles protect the earth from solar winds
-The middle of the earth is liquid outside and solid inner section
-Like gases, hot molten rock will rise (to form volcanoes) and cool rock will sink
-Volcanoes are created when molten rock rises through up through the crust
-When a plume of hot rock pushes through the mantle, cooler rock is forced aside causing volcanic ridges. The old crust moves aside and magma fills the gap to develop new crust
-Positions on the edge of a plate are more tectonically active. Australia is in centre so it is not
-A normal fault is where rocks are pulled apart and one side drops down
-Large faults can cause earthquakes
-Folding and breaking of rocks plus grinding of one plate under another can cause earthquakes to occur
-When rocks break and slip, earthquakes can occur
-Trench is a long narrow valley on the ocean floor
-Subduction is the action of a plate (usually oceanic) sliding beneath another plate upon collision
-When an oceanic plate subducts and causes an earthquake, a tsunami can also occur
-Subduction zone is the area where a plate subducts
-Plates are constantly on the move, they move at a rate of 5 to 15cm per year

Convection Currents:
This is the heat-driven motion that causes plates to move and rocks to travel in a circular motion within the earth. They are within the mantle
Currents moving away from each other = diverging = crust pulled apart
Currents moving toward each other = converging = crush pushed together

Plate Boundaries:

1. Divergent/Constructive Boundary
-Movement of plates away from each other
-Plates can be oceanic or continental
-Gap caused called a rift or ridge
-Magma fills rift, volcano formed
-New crust created
-e.g. Mt Kilimanjaro, East African Rift, Mid-Atlantic Rift, Iceland

2. Convergent/Collision/Destructive Boundary

-Plates move toward each other
-Ocean to continent = oceanic crust subducts and melts, land on continental crust folds upward, volcano and rift forms. E.g. Mt St Helens, USA

-Ocean to ocean = one piece of crust subducts and melts, volcano (underwater) and trench forms. E.g. Japan, Indonesia, Caribbean Islands, Philippines (island arcs)

-Continent to continent = none or very little subduction occurs; continents on top of the plates collide and fold upwards to form mountains. E.g. Himalayas (Indian and Eurasian Plates), Andes (fold mountains?)

3. Transform/Conservative Boundary
-Plates slide alongside each other
-Can be oceanic or continental
-May move in the same or opposite direction
-Causes a fault e.g. Sand Andrea Fault, California (Pacific and North American Plates)

Helpful sites:
http://geology.com/nsta/convergent-plate-boundaries.shtml
http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Oc-Po/Plate-Tectonics.html

Maths Tests

Hello everybody!

Unless you were sick, away, at strings, or extremely lucky, you have probably had a maths test today. It was on linear graphs; a topic which appeared to be of a quarter science, a quarter finance, a quarter maths and the rest was dot-to-dot. I’m not sure about you, but I didn’t go too well. At any rate, it has inspired this post on:

MATHS TESTS

Okay, firstly here’s a joke:
Q: How many legs does an octopus have?
A: Eight
This one was courtesy of year 5 maths. It does make you wonder, who makes these maths worksheets?

But back to the point, maths tests can be exceedingly stressful experiences, but with the right steps, they could become mildly acceptable. Enjoyable even. And then again, maybe not…

Firstly though, it’s very important to realise that although maths tests can’t technically be studied for and certainly can’t be crammed for, it is possible to study for maths. It’s very much like what the language teachers say, “a little every day”. If you do, maybe one or two questions every single day, you’ll eventually find that you can do them much more efficiently and easily.

Another integral aspect of maths tests are the point allocation. You need to know what your strengths are:

1. You’re better at the skills section. In this case, by all means work the test out in order. It gives you time to perfect the skills and thus get a better mark. However, despite having less time for skills, doing analysis first would give you more opportunity to do well on this section, especially since it is usually worth more marks.

2. You’re more analysis oriented. Here, it would be ideal to do the analysis section first. It is often worth more marks, and you will have a more relaxing end to the test.

Contrary to belief, people often think analysis is harder. Teachers think that we think it’s harder too, meaning they often make numbers more convenient. The important thing with analysis is:
1. Show working out, if not for the teacher at least for yourself
2. Check everything carefully
3. If the answer is an unusual fraction, check it even more carefully
4. Draw diagrams
5. Label and USE the diagrams

Personally, I often find that skills can sometime be more difficult. They use weird numbers resulting in strange answers, so it’s difficult to tell whether you are correct or not without re-doing the whole question. Also, generally working out will not earn you any points, so careless errors are very easy to make.
Finally, I will sum this up with my top tips for maths tests:
1. Check if your teacher prefers pen or pencil
2. Show all working
3. If there is a sentence question, use a sentence answer
4. Draw and use diagrams where appropriate
5. Check everything
6. Read all questions before starting, it often calms me down
7. Revise by doing a little very often
8. Watch the time
9. If you are struggling, move on and answer it later, but don’t leave any blanks
10. My personal top tip from today’s experience: Don’t stab yourself with lead pacers where the lead may get stuck in your finger. It not only creates frightening stains on your test, but it also wastes between 10-20mins of time.

Anyway, happy testing! Or not…

ihearthorses

Homework, Sigh

So if you check this blog regularly, which is very nice of you so thanks, you may have realised a massive gap between my last post and this one. That’s quite easily explainable; Homework Overload. Yes, it’s very much the same as last term, about six million assignments due every single day, maths test every week (such as next Friday) and whole tree’s worth of sheets and notes. I bet our school is a danger to the environment, but more importantly, I’ve decided to dedicate this post to:

HOMEWORK TIPS:

1. So to start, you need to identify what category your homework tasks fall into. Don’t worry, it doesn’t take a genius. There are only two categories: Long term, and short term.
Long term work includes: Projects, work taking over 1 week or 10hrs, all assignments, making posters, presentation preparation, research, and studying for tests,
Short term work includes: Worksheets, work with generally only 1 element, maths sums, short written works, essays, anything else that can be done or is due within a night or two.
Now that you know that, we can move on. Short-term work generally comes first for me, and is done in order of being due, then importance. Short-term homework shouldn’t take too long, but don’t skim over it either. Nicely done small tasks will make you appear ‘good’. On the other hand, long-term tasks need to be completely bit by bit, usually after short-term. Do something every day until you finish. It’s helpful to set an ‘at least time’, so you have a minimum amount of time allocated to the task. No maximum is really required, because if you get carried away you’ll end up finishing it faster.

2. Everyone needs priorities, so this is my order of importance: Food, water and oxygen (most important, obviously), compulsory or best ever activities (such as school or horse-riding), homework, optional activities, sleep. Okay, this probably won’t be the same as yours, and you might be thinking, sleep? I thought that was important. YES, sleeping is important, but when you have major geography tasks due the next day, you just can’t help but do it until one in the morning when you begin to think that you’ll either pass out or sleep over your computer (Not doing that again).
Anyway, my point is, list your priorities, rethink them, then think them again, and then do things accordingly. For example, sleep is probably a tad higher on my list.

3. Exceptions to the ‘always do homework’ rule is when the work is:

Useless repetition: Maths is a great example, over 100 questions each time of exactly the same thing over and over again can be tedious and pointless. It can be great practice, but if you know the work well, just do as much as you can. I usually use the abcdhlquyz method. It basically means do a few question, skip a few, and do some more.

Way too hard: In this case, try to do what you can, but ask a friend, sibling, parent, or nice teacher to help you. If you’re going to try using the teacher who set you the work, it would probably be good to email them or something beforehand, so if they say “why didn’t you tell me this earlier”, you can say, “I did”. Haha, or maybe not…

Set by a teacher who neither checks it nor cares: Probably not possible in most classes, but anyway, you should do the work though perhaps a bit lower on the priorities list.

So I’m not so good with homework, I just do it as soon as I get it and then hand it in. Seriously though, get it over with, and whatever you do afterward is heaps more fun. If you have anything to add, any 'sick' (haha, you know what I mean) tips, please comment!

ihearthorses

Chemistry Revision

Sorry this is super super super late, but here is the...

CHEMISTRY REVISION

How to safely handle acids and bases:
-Acids are corrosive, and therefore potentially dangerous
-Strong bases can also be harmful as they are caustic
-Do not combine unknown acids or bases
-Only work under supervision
-Immediately report any spills
-Do not consume any unknown substances
-Always wear safety glasses coats
-Dispose of substances as directed, not directly down the sink
-Keep away from flames unless directed

Chemical and Physical Changes:
Physical Chemical
Change of state Chemical reaction occurs
Reversible Irreversible (or difficult to do so)
Substances stay the same Form a new substance
1. Water freezing to ice 1. Some metal rusts or tarnishes
2. Dissolving sugar in water 2. Cooking
3. Melting gold 3. Vinegar and sodium bicarbonate bubbles
4. A piece of chalk is ground to dust 4. Sugar in grapes ferments
5. Glass breaks 5. Wood burns to form ash

Properties of Acids and Bases:
Acids Bases
Taste sour Taste bitter
Are corrosive Are caustic
Reacts with some metals = hydrogen React with oil so feel slippery to touch
Turn litmus red Turn litmus blue
pH is less than 7 pH is more than 7

Examples of Acids and Bases:
-Hydrochloric acid: HCl
-Sulphuric Acid: H2SO4
-Nitric Acid: HNO3
-Acetic Acid: HC2H3O2
-Sodium Hydroxide: NaOH
-Potassium Hydroxide: KOH
-Calcium Hydroxide: Ca(OH)2
-Magnesium Hydroxide: Mg(OH)2

The Use and Example of Indicators:
Indicators are used to determine whether a substance is acidic, basic (alkaline), neutral. However, the following indicators do not indicate the strength of the acid or base.

Indicator Colour in Acid Colour in Neutral Colour in Base/Alkali
Methyl Orange Reddish Orange Yellowish Yellow
Litmus (lichens) Red Green Blue
Bromothymol Blue Yellow Yellow Bluish purple
Phenolphthalein Colourless Colourless Pink
Red Wine Red Red Green
Red Cabbage Juice Red Blue Yellow
*Alkalis are bases that are soluble in water

The pH Scale and What the Numbers Indicate in Terms of Acid or Base:
-The pH scale is used the measure the strength of an acid or base
-A pH of less than 7 indicates that the substance is an acid
-A pH of more than 7 indicates that the substance is a base
-If the pH is 7, the substance is considered to be neutral – neither acid nor base
-Strong Acid: 0-3, HCl, H2SO4, HNO3
-Weak Acid: 3-7, vinegar, citric acid
-Weak Base: 7-11, Baking Soda, bicarbonate of soda
-Strong Base: 11-14, KOH, NaOH
-Universal indicator is added to substance, the colour degrees can be matched and interpreted.

Reactions of Acids and Bases:
(Reactants → Products)
1. Neutralisation: Acid + Base → Salt + Water
e.g HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2O
2. Acid + Metal carbonate → Salt + Water + Carbon Dioxide
e.g 2HCl + CaCO3 → CaCl2 + H2O + CO2
3. Acid + Reactive metal → Salt + Hydrogen gas
e.g 2HCl + Mg → MgCl2 + H2
*Salt is a solution, so the state symbol is (aq) for aqueous. Others are (s), (l), (g)
**Test for CO2 is bubbled through limewater, hydrogen is ‘pop’ test

Interpret and Analyse Data Related to pH and acid-base:
-Remember not to put too much universal indicator
-Cloudy result means solid is made
-Bubbles or fizzing means gas is made
-In the chemical symbols, H at the beginning usually indicates an acid, and an OH at the end usually indicates a base

Acid Rain – What it is, Causes, Problems, Solutions:
- Definition:
Acid rain is any form of precipitation, such as rain or snow, which has been polluted by acids.
- Causes:
Acid rain is caused when water vapour in the air reacts with chemical compounds given off by cars, factories, and power plants (burn fossil fuels). These chemicals include Sulphur and nitrogen oxides which form into sulphuric and nitric acids.
*Carbon dioxide, which is naturally present in air, dissolves in rainwater to form a light acid
- Problems:
Acid rain directly attacks leaves and needles of plants which prevent photosynthesis. It also soaks into soil which affects chemical balance, damaging plants and crops. It can run off into rivers and lakes polluting drinking water and killing aquatic life. Acid rain also attacks stonework including buildings and statues.
- Solutions:
1. Decrease fossil fuel usage so as to limit sulphur and nitrogen compounds in the air. Find other, renewable energy sources.
2. Lime can be added to lakes in order to neutralise the acid rain.
3. Smokestacks, high tower-like chimneys, reduce local air pollution, but transfer the issue elsewhere.

Antacids in the Treatment of Indigestion:
-Your stomach contains hydrochloric acid which assists in food digestion
-When it becomes too acidic, it causes a burning feeling called indigestion
-Treatment is to take an antacid powder or tablet
-The antacid contains a base which neutralises excess acid in the stomach and relieves the pain
-Salt and water is produced
-Common antacid is milk of magnesia
-Consists of solid base, magnesium oxide suspended in water
-The base neutralises the hydrochloric acid in your stomach
magnesium oxide base + hydrochloric acid → magnesium chloride salt + water

COPYRIGHT 2010 ihearthorses

My History Essay

Hey, if any of you people out there are actually interested, here is my history essay:

ESSAY PLAN: DID RICHARD III KILL THE PRINCES?

Introduction:
Surrounded by much controversy and mystery, the question as to whether Richard III murdered the princes in the tower is one that has remained unanswered throughout history. As with any other case, there are numerous views on this particular matter. In my personal opinion though, Richard III did not kill the princes.

Paragraph 1:
To begin with, there are many pieces of evidence which depict Richard as being a devoted brother, uncle, and ruler. During the War of the Roses, by following Edward into exile, and fighting alongside him in the battles of Barnet and Tewkesbury, Richard proved his loyalty. His affection and sense of protection toward the princes may have been the cause of his failure to bring them out in public upon request. Despite the first written account of this matter being thoroughly against him, the quote, ‘he would neuer putte them to death’, quite clearly states the unlikelihood of his being the murderer. The postcards in the Battlefield Church are also proof of his fair rulings, with praise for his bravery, loyalty, and worthiness.

Paragraph 2:
Furthermore, during the Tudor’s reign, Richard was, naturally, portrayed as a villainous character with many documents supporting him destroyed, hence making later evidence likely to be biased. Due to the lack of available facts, Shakespeare’s play, ‘Richard III’, and Thomas More’s work, ‘History of King Richard III’, were largely sourced from John Morton. However, Morton himself had a low opinion of Richard III due to the fact that he had been imprisoned by Richard for treason. Therefore, these heavily biased works may have severely influenced later accounts and opinions. This effect is shown through the altered portrait of Richard III whose lips, eyes and shoulder had been modified to make him appear to be the sinister hunchback that he was not.

Paragraph 3:
Finally, there are also numerous other convincing outcomes and suspects apart from Richard III. One key suspect is Henry Tudor, whose claim to the throne was not only exceedingly unconvincing, but he did not mention the princes until over a year after Richard’s death. If alive, the princes would have been a great embarrassment to the Tudors. Another suspect is Henry Stafford, the Duke of Buckingham. While he appeared to support Richard, it was suspected that he may have been secretly assisting the Tudors. In this case, the princes’ deaths would have been of benefit. Another possible outcome was that the princes’ had in fact survived, as although their mother, Elizabeth Woodville, fought for their legitimacy, she never mentioned that they had been murdered.

Conclusion:
In conclusion, the disappearance of the princes in the tower is of high significance and mystery in history. There are many pieces of evidence which prove Richard III’s innocence, including that he had a fine personality, much of the evidence against him was biased due to the Tudor reign, and that there were numerous other likely suspects and outcomes. Therefore, the convincing evidence leads me to strongly believe that Richard III did not kill the princes.

COPYRIGHT 2010 ihearthorse

Timed Essays

Hi everyone!

Now that school’s finally started up again, I can finally post stuff to help (or entertain) anyone who might read this blog. So, seeing as I’m in the mood after that EPIC 50min history essay on ‘Did Richard III Kill the Princes’ which I really don’t care about anyway, this post is going to be all about:

HOW TO HANDLE A TIMED ESSAY

Okay, I have to admit I’m really bad with anything that’s ‘timed’. Even in those games where the clock counts up, I get really stressed and freak out and quit the game, but unfortunately, chances are that’s not going to work in essays.

Firstly, you have to get over the fact that the time is ticking. Don’t write too quickly, and think about what you’re writing before you write it, so even if you run out of time to re-read, it shouldn’t be too bad.

Also, it always helps to know what you’re writing before-hand. If it’s a story, consider several plotlines and choose one that best fits the situation. Using dreams to end stories are NOT GOOD, as it shows you have not planned your time. However, it is better than nothing so you be the judge… Other essays can be a bit trickier to plan, unless you know the topic. If so, then write out the essay the night before, memorise it (I have a really good short-term memory but if you can’t, just try get the main points…) and write away when it’s time.

That brings me to re-reading. I know all the teachers go “re-read, re-read, re-read”, but it really depends on the type of person:
1. You are always careful when you write, rarely making silly errors, and you write slowly:
For you, I think it’s not all that important. I mean yes, by all means re-read it and check it over and over if you have time to spare, but if you’re going to cut short a good story or essay just to re-read it, then you might want to reconsider… After all, one or two small things won’t make much difference

2. You often make silly mistakes in your writing and you write very quickly:
If you’re this type of person, then the best thing you can do is RE-READ, EDIT, and RE-READ AGAIN! As long as you do that, you should be fine with most grammatical issues. But what’s that you say? You can never find spelling mistakes because they are forever playing hide and seek with you, or you just can’t remember what that silly word looks like? Simple: If you can’t find the error and have plenty of time, read the essay backwards. So instead of ‘I really like horses’ read ‘horses like really I’. You generally miss these spelling errors because your brain is focussing on something else. Reading backwards means there’s only one thing to concentrate on anyway. And if you can’t remember a single word, REPLACE IT, there are over 750 000 000 words, surely there’s one you can use instead.

3. You write quickly and accurately:
If this is you, I don’t know why you are reading this blog. Maybe you could stare out the window or something? More seriously though, if you can actually write quickly without mistakes then maybe you could expand on your ideas. Add more information, more adjectives, make improvements. I follow the improvements=((minutes remaining)/5) equation. (Okay, I may have made that up on the spot, but it does work) So you divide the amount of time after you have completed the whole essay by 5, and then make that many improvements. After you’ve done that, by all means stare out the window.

4. You write slowly and often make errors:
Okay, the only thing for you is to improve one or the other. To write quicker, write more. Yup, that’s the only way to do it. Try to see how many times you can write ‘I love horses because horses are the absolute best things ever!’ in a minute (or a sentence of your choice). While watching television, it helps if you just keep writing, for 30-50mins straight. Or, even better, be in my maths class, where we have to write and draw for 45mins straight anyway. Great practice, right?

Top Tips for Timed Essay Writing:
1. Plan and allocate time for what you are writing before-hand
2. Ignore the time while writing
3. Consider the time after writing
4. If time allows, re-read, edit, and then stare out of the window (jokes)
5. Make improvements using the improvements=((minutes remaining)/5) method

Happy writing!!
ihearthorses


PS. I’ve probably missed heaps of important stuff because I just wrote this quickly due to apparent ‘high demand’. Please comment and I can add more.
PPS. I’ll post my history essay soon, please note that all work on here is COPYRIGHT!

This blog

Hi everyone!

An unknown someone has convinced me to start a blog, and this is what it’s going to be all about:

1. Do you have a test coming up? Well so do I, and how do you study for and ace this heavily dreaded piece of paper with questions or empty bubbles on it? Find out soon.
2. Totally confused about a research project? Don’t know how or where to start research? Well I’ll be putting up highly recommended resources for our topics and how to break it down.
3. The top-secret keys to getting good marks; how to make essays, projects, and orals seem good, even when it’s obvious that they really aren’t.

There isn't much to come soon as it is holidays, unless you have some sort of burning maths question or something. So there you go, once school starts you can comment and request for study sheets (which I write a lot of) and such.
Oh and by the way, I LOVE VERBAL REASONING, so if you have any puzzles or problem solving, then please post them.

Oh, and good luck with CREST!